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SPRING 2007 SPOTLIGHT:
Involving Refugee Parents in their Children’s Education |
| In our culture [Somali],
you send the kids to school and they are the schools’
responsibility...Sometimes when the teachers have a
problem understanding the mothers, I help them by translating
for them. The first thing the mother will ask is, “What
is she complaining for? Isn’t that her job? Isn’t
she the one who is supposed to fix the child? Why is
she telling me?” [12] |
Many teachers and administrators across the United States
are confused and concerned when they host parent-teacher conferences,
“Open Houses,” or other events for parents and
find that few of their refugee parents attend. Sometimes,
repeated failed efforts result in teachers and administrators
concluding that the refugee parents in their district “just
don’t care.”[11]
Yet, that is rarely the case. Research consistently shows
that refugee parents do care about their children’s
education a great deal. Yet, as the above quote demonstrates,
there are often a number of cultural issues at play.
Defining Parent Involvement – Whose Definition?
American-born educators, administrators, and researchers
have yet to decide upon a clear definition for “parent
involvement” since it encompasses so many things, but
a general understanding of the term includes activities such
as:
- Volunteering at school
- Communicating with teachers and other school personnel
- Attending school events, PTA meetings, and parent-teacher
conferences
- Assisting with academic activities at home [8]
If we take a close look at this list, the first three items
involve “showing-up” activities that teachers
often use to gauge a parent’s level of support. Americans
often emphasize parents’ presence at their children’s
schools, more so than anything done at home. Yet, refugees’
ideas of what it means to be involved in their children’s
education are often different. For example, a focus group
of Somalis in Minnesota revealed that many help their children
with their homework, read to them, take them to the library,
and involve community members whenever their children need
extra help. In addition, many of these Somalis considered
“peripheral” activities – such as feeding
their children, buying them books, and making sure they get
to the school bus on time – as being involved in their
children’s education. Yet, the majority of these parents
did not visit the schools; therefore, many of the local teachers
had made the all-too-common conclusion that “they didn’t
care.”[12]
In addition, some cultures do not distinguish between education
as schooling and education as upbringing, so some refugee
parents may feel that they are involved in their children’s
education when they teach them social skills, such as how
to be respectful. [22]
Before examining other cultural misunderstandings related
to parental involvement, it is important to take a look at
why this topic is important.
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Why All the Fuss?
Numerous studies have shown that parent involvement
is associated with children’s academic success.
Studies usually demonstrate this in the short-term,
but some studies have also shown the benefit of parent
involvement in the long-term. Data from the Chicago
Longitudinal Study indicated that parent involvement
in elementary school was significantly associated with
academic success in high school.[3]
Due to the consistent research findings in this area,
schools are now required to involve parents in their
children’s education through the No Child Left
Behind Act. [23]
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"Between 1979 and 2004, the number of
school age children (ages 5-17) who spoke a language
other than English at home increased from 3.8
to 9.9 million, or from 9 to 19 percent of all
children in this age group..." [24,
p. 34] |
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For refugee families, this topic
is even more important for a number of reasons:
- Education is closely linked with refugee families’
integration. The Migration Policy Institute stated, “Schools
have served as critical engines of integration, enabling
children to master the core curriculum and both parents
and children to acquire language and civics skills.”
[7, p.3]
For a figure that illustrates how parent involvement is
related to integration, see page 101 of Investing
in Communities: Strategies for Immigrant Integration
by Grantmakers Concerned with Immigrants and Refugees (GCIR).
- Teachers who are culturally different from their students
are less likely to know their students/parents than are
teachers who share the cultural background of their students;
furthermore, teachers who are culturally different than
their students are more likely to believe that they and
their families are disinterested or uninvolved in schooling.
[6]
- Teachers and administrators often have lower expectations
for immigrants and children of color. [17]
- Refugee parents often have extraordinary strengths and
the capacity to educate their children, and their classmates,
in numerous ways. Yet, unfortunately, differences in culture
are often considered a deficit rather than an asset in schools.
“…Low-income, urban parents who speak English
as a second language…are portrayed as empty containers,
which need to be filled before they can give anything of
value to the schools or to their own offspring.” [11,
p.93]
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Involving Refugee Parents in Activities at School
Cultural Considerations
- As explained above, many refugees may be unaware that,
in the United States, involvement in children’s education
includes visiting their child’s school for various
meetings and events. Many refugee parents may hear that
they are supposed to visit their children’s schools
and may be vaguely aware of expectations, but they are often
not sure what those expectations are. [12]
- In many – perhaps even most – cultures, teachers
are highly respected and considered to be experts in their
field. Teachers may be viewed as being of a higher status
and as always right. In these societies, it is often disrespectful
to question a teacher or interfere in their work in any
way. Thus, in many countries, parents rarely visit their
children’s schools or talk with their teachers. This
is one of the primary reasons that foreign-born families
find their new role as the teacher’s “partner”
confusing (see, for example, the opening quote for this
Spotlight).
- Many cultures are relationship-oriented and it is important
to gain someone’s trust before “doing business”
or discussing problems. Some refugee parents have suggested
that the development of informal relationships with their
children’s teachers, prior to hearing “bad news”
from them, would help tremendously.
- When discussing the child’s progress with his/her
parents, teachers need to be aware that certain behaviors
that are viewed as positive in American society might be
considered negative in other cultures. For example, families
from collectivistic (group-oriented) societies are likely
to be uncomfortable with teachers who praise their students
individually because it singles them out from their classmates
or because it is interpreted as spoiling them. Furthermore,
in cultures where elders are highly respected, parents might
be upset to learn that their children are “speaking
up” and sharing their ideas with the class. [22]
- It can be challenging for refugee parents to learn how
to discipline their children in their new context. Misinformation
about acceptable parenting practices and discipline techniques
carries over to education as can be seen from this quote:
My mum didn’t have any education but she encouraged
me to do my homework. This is why I graduated university
[in Somalia] in 1985. I couldn’t lie to them. In this
system [United States] I can’t punish [my children]…if
they lie to me. [12,
p. 89]
- People from around the world have different orientations
to time. Many refugee families are not used to making appointments
weeks ahead of time, keeping a calendar, or showing up to
meetings “on time.”
- In many countries around the world, individuals do not
have the power to change the infrastructure of established
systems. The idea that parents can potentially create change
in their children’s schools may be unfamiliar.
[1]
RECOMMENDATIONS
BOX 1: CULTURAL CONSIDERATIONS
- Orientation for Refugee Parents:
Provide refugee parents with some type of orientation
to the American school system, including a clear explanation
of expectations related to parental involvement. [20]
Models are available for how to conduct orientations;
for example, the LEP
Parent Involvement Project. Also, the Adult
Learning Resource Center in Illinois conducts
trainings around the country on starting up parental
involvement programs in schools. Sample pages of their
curriculum, Parents
as Educational Partners (PEP): A School-Related Curriculum
for Language Minority Parents, are available.
Some school districts are using videos to accomplish
this such as Minnesota
and Illinois.
- Observation: As a part of the
orientation, invite refugee parents to observe their
child’s class for a couple of hours. Some have
reported that even non English-speaking parents benefit
from this experience. [15]
- Cultural Liaisons: Consider hiring
cultural liaisons to bridge the gap between refugee
communities and the local schools. Many programs use
such liaisons; for example, see the Refugee
Family Services School Liaison Program in Stone
Mountain, Georgia.
- Tips for Initial Meetings with Parents:
- Begin by establishing a relationship with
the family and gaining their trust before urgent
behavioral or academic matters arise.
- Next, use the opportunity to ask questions
about refugees’ cultures and views on
parental involvement. See the Iowa Parent Information
Resource Center’s sample
questions.
- As much as time allows, explain the type of
behavior that is expected and encouraged in
American classrooms.
- Parenting Education: Develop or
locate parenting classes for refugee families. See
BRYCS’
Parenting Toolkit as well as Module
4 from the LEP Parent Involvement Project. Rather
than operating from a deficit approach, be sure to
build on the families’ strengths. For ideas,
see Reassessing
Parent Involvement: Involving Language Minority Parents
in School Work at Home.
- School Staff Training: A large
percentage of teacher training programs do not include
coursework on parent involvement or much information
on the cultures of the students they are teaching.
[5]
In addition, the majority of American teachers is
white and speaks only English. [21]
Therefore, schools need to provide teachers
with cultural competency training, including information
on how to translate this knowledge into practice.
[9]
It is also a good idea to include other
school staff in these trainings, since refugee children
interact with a broad range of staff. See BOX 6 for
ideas and materials.
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Language Considerations
- All schools receiving federal funding are required to
provide interpreters for parents to facilitate communication
according to Title
VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. In addition, the
No
Child Left Behind Act states that communication with
immigrant children’s parents should occur in their
native language. Many immigrant parents experience communication
as an insurmountable barrier.
- Children are unfortunately often used as interpreters,
which gives them an inappropriate amount of power and can
negatively affect family roles and relationships. According
to the focus group of Somalis in Minnesota:
Children were reported as acting as translators and interpreters
of all communication, including any letters from the school.
Because they controlled the communication between the household
and the outside world, the children were said to act like
they are the heads of households and their parents are inferior
to them. [12, p. 87]
- Recognize that some parents who need an interpreter will
not ask for one. For some, it may be embarrassing to ask
for an interpreter due to a fear that they could be viewed
as “ignorant.” Others might not want to go through
the all-too-typical hassle of waiting for one to be located.
Still others might simply want to use the opportunity to
practice their English.
RECOMMENDATIONS
BOX 2: LANGUAGE CONSIDERATIONS
- “I
Speak” cards or posters
can be used so that refugee families can communicate
the language of interpretation they need.
- Translate/Interpret: Translate
as many documents as possible, keeping in mind the
literacy level of the parents, and provide interpreters
for parents who need them. Consider partnering with
refugee
resettlement agencies or refugee-led organizations
to accomplish this. Have a process in place for obtaining
interpreters and translators in all languages –
not just Spanish. For example, the Minnesota Department
of Education keeps an interpreter
database to help with this process.
- Cross-Cultural Communication: For
all refugee parents, there is much to consider, beyond
the level of English, for successful communication.
See Working
on Common Cross-Cultural Communication Challenges
for tips. And for the parents who choose to speak
English, be patient! If you have ever tried having
a conversation in another language – not to
mention a conference with a teacher – you can
imagine how difficult this might be.
- Choose Vocabulary Carefully: Certain
words, such as “OK,” mean different things
depending on one’s tone. [12]
Furthermore, new English speakers might
not know technical terms such as “curriculum.”
[18]
- Written Communication: Recognize
that refugee parents with a higher level of formal
education might prefer written communication, such
as email or letters, because of having a better understanding
of written than spoken English.
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Literacy and Education
Level Considerations
- Many refugee families come from parts of the world where
education is a luxury or has been interrupted due to war
and/or the migration process. Research shows that parents’
confidence in their own intellectual abilities significantly
affects their involvement in their children’s education.
[8]
- Due to the difficulties that preliterate parents face,
many family literacy programs have been developed by schools
and community organizations. To read an overview of what
family literacy is and how it benefits multilingual communities,
see Family
and Intergenerational Literacy in Multilingual Communities.
Family literacy programs have been shown to increase parents’
involvement in their children’s schools. For an example
of an effective program, read about the Hmong
Literacy Project.
- Unfortunately, some family literacy programs focus on
the deficiencies of families and utilize narrow definitions
of literacy that promote “only school-like literacy
interactions.” More recently, educators are realizing
the importance of strengths-based literacy programs that
incorporate activities that are relevant to the lives of
their students and their families. [14]
RECOMMENDATIONS
BOX 3: LITERACY/EDUCATION LEVEL CONSIDERATIONS
- Family Literacy: Develop family
literacy programs using a strengths-based perspective.
Begin by asking parents questions about their perceptions
and expectations on the uses and functions of literacy
in their lives.
- Literacy in Native Language: For
adults who are literate in their native language,
but not necessarily English, encourage them to read
to their children in their native language. As one
literacy expert stated, “The greatest contribution
that refugee parents can make to their children’s
success is to ensure they maintain fluency and continue
to develop the home language.”[As
cited in 14]
- Beginner Literacy Skills: For
adults with some literacy skills in any language,
expand your definition of literacy and promote activities
where parents assist their children in developing
literacy skills from familiar life events. Teachers
can create reading and writing assignments around
the families’ interests such as hobbies, sports,
and cultural events.[14]
For other ideas, see BRYCS’ description
of World
Relief Chicago’s Family Literacy Program
as well as Model
Strategies in Bilingual Education: Family Literacy
and Parent Involvement.
- Preliterate: For parents who are
unable to read or write in any language, recognize
the role of oral language development as a precursor
to early literacy. Parents should be encouraged to
engage their children in rhymes, songs, riddles, oral
history, poetry, proverbs, and folklore. In addition,
parents can also share wordless picture books with
their children to teach early literacy skills such
as predicting, story sequencing, and identifying key
story elements and main characters. [14]
Dispel the myth that they cannot help
their children in school just because they do not
speak English!
- Verbal Communication: As much
as possible, speak to the parents of your students
(in-person or on the phone) and reduce the number
of letters and notices sent home.
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Logistical
Considerations
-
Many refugees cannot take time away from
work to come to their children’s schools.
-
Transportation is often a very realistic
“excuse” as many American cities have limited
public transportation and refugees often must depend on
friends or family members with cars.
-
Parents are often responsible for younger
children, and may need child care in order to come to
schools.
-
Poverty affects American-born parents’
participation in schools; likewise, it will affect the
participation of many refugees who are struggling to make
ends meet in addition to adjusting to the culture.
-
Whether due to pre-migration trauma or
stress from adapting to the United States, some refugees
experience what is typically known in America as depression
and/or anxiety. Research shows that parents’ mental
health can influence their involvement. [8]
RECOMMENDATIONS
BOX 4: LOGISTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
- Timing: Vary the times of meetings
and events at your school and be creative. For example,
some social workers have found that meeting with refugee
parents for breakfast, after they drop off their kids
at school, works well.[16]
Furthermore, be as flexible as possible! When making
an appointment with a parent, remember that not all
cultures value being on time and it will take refugee
families a while to adjust to this.
- Transportation: Whenever it is
possible, provide transportation to events for refugee
parents. See how the schools in Manchester,
New Hampshire are doing it. Or, help facilitate
the creation of a carpool for parents who want to
visit the school.
- Child Care: Do not overlook a parent’s
need for child care. One solution is to recruit a
volunteer to watch the children. For ideas regarding
larger groups of children needing childcare, see how
the Manchester
School District is doing it.
- Meeting Location: Ask refugee parents
where they are comfortable meeting. Consider meeting
with refugee families in their homes or other informal
locations, where they would be more comfortable.
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Welcoming Refugee Families - Considerations
-
Many refugee parents have reported not
feeling welcomed in their children’s schools, feeling
that their cultural background is viewed as a “deficit”
rather than a strength.
-
For other parents, not feeling welcomed
may be related to certain security measures as this quote
demonstrates:
Parents are always being told,
“Please, please, come in to the school,”
but then as soon as you come in the school, the next
thing is, “Well, wait a minute. You have to
write your name down, give you a badge…and then
we have to get security to escort you.” Or,
“You can’t go anywhere. We have to call
your children from the class.”[12, p. 94] -
Minority parents may be criticized for
not being more involved in their children’s schools.
However, some research has shown that this is the result
of resignation, caused by school staff misunderstanding
parents’ beliefs and practices, rather than parents’
disinterest in being involved. [10]
-
Some immigrant and refugee parents report
not feeling welcomed by other parents. As one parent stated:
I think the relationship between
American and Korean mothers is like that of oil and
water, which cannot ever mix. Whenever I participate
in PTA, I feel I am left out. [18,
p. 129] |
RECOMMENDATIONS
BOX 5: WELCOMING REFUGEE FAMILIES - CONSIDERATIONS
- Develop a Plan: It helps if schools
have systematic plans for engaging refugee parents.
Iowa has developed a Toolkit for Educators called
REACH
Out to Parents for Student Success, which
includes information on planning, conducting needs
assessments, incorporating research-based practices,
evaluation, and sustainability.
- Everyone is an Ambassador: Recognize
that everyone in your school from the security guard
to the principal contributes to helping refugee families
feel welcome! In addition, hire more teachers and
personnel from the cultural backgrounds of your students.
When parents see teachers who look like them and speak
their language, they will feel more comfortable.
- Outreach: It is extremely helpful
to involve community leaders from the various refugee
groups. Be creative and try neighborhood walks, different
media outlets, or videos. [19]
To help refugee parents feel welcome among other parents,
create a program that offers mentors or “buddies”
to befriend new parents. [2]
- Facilitate Visits: Eliminate unnecessary
procedures – especially written ones –
when parents visit the school.
- Focus on the Parents: If your first
contact with a family is through a refugee resettlement
caseworker or church co-sponsor, be sure to focus
on the parents and communicate directly with them,
rather than with the other service providers. [4]
- Reflect: Take a look at your own
views about child development and education and reflect
on how they are influenced by your culture. Think
critically about your own level of cultural competence
and how immigrant-friendly your school is. Rate yourself
with the Self-Report Cards on pages 55-56 of Improving
Education for Immigrant Students.
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RECOMMENDATIONS
BOX 6: ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
For School Personnel
Cultural Competency
- See BRYCS past Spotlights on Cultural
Competency, Education,
and Parenting
as well as our publications.
- The Center for Applied Linguistics Cultural Orientation
Resource Center’s Culture
Profiles.
- Welcoming
New Learners: A Professional Development Tool
from the Illinois State Board of Education (online
video)
- Understanding
Your Refugee and Immigrant Students: An Educational,
Cultural, and Linguistic Guide, by Jeffra
Flaitz.
- From the Iowa Parent Resource Center, there are
Culture Summaries on Education in Bosnia,
Mexico,
Southeast
Asia, and for refugees
in general. Also see their publications on cultural
competence for administrators,
teachers,
and parents.
- See the Annie E. Casey Foundation’s Building
Culturally & Linguistically Competent Services
to Support Young Children, Their Families, and School
Readiness for personnel providing services
in Early Intervention and Early Childhood Settings.
Family Literacy with English Language Learners
- The Center for Adult English Language Acquisition
has a whole section on Family
Literacy and Adult English Language Learners.
- The National Center for Family Literacy has a Practitioner
Toolkit for Working with Adult English Language Learners
and Free
Teacher Resources.
For Parents
Cultural Orientation
- Welcome
to the United States: A Guidebook for Refugees
by the Center for Applied Linguistics is given to
nearly all refugees before departing for the United
States and includes a chapter on education.
- Welcome
to the United States: A Guide for New Immigrants
from USCIS is available in numerous languages and
includes a chapter on education
- A Guide to Your Children’s School: A Parent
Handbook, from the Adult Learning Resource Center
in Des Plaines, Illinois, is available in English,
Arabic,
Bosnian,
Russian,
Spanish,
and Vietnamese.
- School
Success Tool-Kit from People for the American
Way Foundation.
- Understanding
American Schools: The Answers to Newcomers’
Most Frequently Asked Questions by Anne P.
Copeland and Georgia Bennett.
- A
Toolkit for Hispanic Families from the U.S.
Department of Education.
- In
Our Country (online video) from the Illinois
State Board of Education.
- You
Can Help Your Child in School and You
Can Talk to Your Child’s School from
Minnesota’s bookstore (videos).
Family Literacy
- The International
Children’s Digital Library with online books
for FREE in a variety of languages including Arabic,
Swahili, Farsi, Spanish, French, and more!
- Somali
Bilingual Book Project is working to publish Somali
folktales.
For further descriptions of these useful resources
and more like it, please see the Highlighted
Resources List. |
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REFUGEE
CHILDREN SCHOOL
IMPACT GRANTS
Both of the “Promising
Practices” highlighted are funded by Refugee
Children School Impact Grants from the Office of
Refugee Resettlement, which cover some of the costs
of educating refugee children incurred by local school
districts in which significant numbers of refugee children
reside. Funding is currently provided for 35 states.
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OTHER
TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE
The Spring
Institute for Intercultural Learning is a nonprofit
training and consulting corporation dedicated to demonstrating
that national, cultural, linguistic and ethnic differences
are assets that foster understanding and cooperation.
The Institute has been designated by the Office of Refugee
Resettlement as their technical assistance provider
in the area of English Language Training. Their publications
include Refugee Children with Low Literacy Skills or
Interrupted Education: Identifying Challenges and Strategies
and Mental Health of Refugee Children: A Guide for the
ESL Teacher. All three publications can be ordered by
phone: 303-863-0188, fax: 303-863-0178, or email.
The Spring Institute has also provided workshops to
schools impacted by large numbers of refugee children
and is available to provide these workshops free of
charge.
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BRYCS’ Spotlights and other publications are written
for practitioners. All of the information and recommendations
above are based on the references below. In places where there
is not a specific reference listed and you would like to know
the source, please contact
us and we would be happy to provide that information.
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REFERENCES
1. Ariza, E. (2000). “Actions Speak Louder Than
Words – Or Do They? Debunking the Myth of Apathetic
Immigrant Parents in Education.” Contemporary
Education, 71 (3), 36-38.
2. Ariza, E. (2002). “Cultural Considerations:
Immigrant Parent Involvement.” Kappa Delta Pi,
38 (3), 134-137..
3. Barnard, W. (2003). “Parent Involvement in
Elementary School and Educational Attainment.”
Children and Youth Services Review, 26, 58-62.
4. Blakely, M. (1983). “Southeast Asian Refugee
Parents: An Inquiry Into Home-School Communication and
Understanding.” Anthropology and Education Quarterly,
14, 50-65.
5. DeHass, A.G. (2005). “Facilitating Parent Involvement:
Reflecting on Effective Teacher Education.” Teaching
& Learning, 19 (2), 57-76.
6. Epstein, J.L. & Dauber, S.L. (1991). “School
Programs and Teacher Practices of Parent Involvement
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7. Fix, M., Papademetriou, D., & Cooper, B. (2005).
“Leaving Too Much to Chance: a Roundtable on Immigrant
Integration Policy.” http://www.migrationpolicy.org/pubs/LeavingTooMuch_Report.pdf
8. Hill, N.E. & Taylor, L.C. (2004). “Parental
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9. Joshi, A., Eberly, J., & Konzal, J. (2005). “Dialogue
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10. Lai, Y. & Ishiyama, F.I. (2004). “Involvement
of Immigrant Chinese Canadian Mothers of Children with
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11. Lightfoot, D. (2004). “’Some Parents
Just Don’t Care: Decoding the Meanings of Parental
Involvement in Urban Schools.” Urban Education,
39 (1), 91-107.
12. Nderu, E.N. (2005). “Parental Involvement
in Education: A Qualitative Study of Somali Immigrants
in the Twin Cities Area.” Proquest Information
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13. Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory. (1998).
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http://www.nwrel.org/cnorse/booklets/immigration/
14. Ortiz, R.W. & Ordonez-Jasis, R. (2005). “Leyendo
Juntos: New Directions for Latino Parents’ Early
Literacy Involvement.” The Reading Teacher, 59
(2), 110-121.
15. Personal communication with Mary St. John, Lutheran
Family Services in the Carolinas, January 19,2007. .
16. Personal communication with Ruth Campbell, International
Institute of New Jersey, January 15, 2007.
17. Ramirez, A.Y.F. (2003). “Dismay and Disappointment:
Parental Involvement of Latino Immigrant Parents.”
The Urban Review, 35 (2), 93-110.
18. Sohn, S. & Wang, C. (2006). “Immigrant
Parents’ Involvement in American Schools: Perspectives
from Korean Mothers.” Early Childhood Education
Journal, 34 (2), 125-132.
19. Southwest Educational Development Laboratory. (2000).
“Family and Community Involvement: Reaching Out
to Diverse Populations.” http://www.sedl.org/pubs/catalog/items/fam29.html
20. Spaulding, S., Carolino, B., & Amen, K. (2004).
“ Immigrant Students and Secondary School Reform:
Compendium of Best Practices. The Council of Chief State
School Officers.” http://www.ccsso.org/content/pdfs/BestPractices.pdf
21. Strizek, G.A., Pittsonberger, J.L., Riordan, K.E.,
Lyter, D.M., and Orlofsky, G.F. (2006). “Characteristics
of Schools, Districts, Teachers, Principals, and School
Libraries in the United States. 2003-04 Schools and
Staff Survey. National Center for Education Statistics.”
http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2006313
22. Trumbull, E., Rothstein-Fisch, C., & Greenfield,
P. (2000). “Bridging Cultures in our Schools:
New Approaches that Work.” http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2/content_storage_01/0000000b/80/10/de/14.pdf
23. U.S. Department of Education. “Facts and Terms
Every Parent Should Know About NCLB.” http://www.ed.gov/nclb/overview/intro/parents/parentfacts.html
24. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for
Education Statistics. (2006). “The Condition of
Education 2006.” NCES 2006-071, Washington, DC:
U.S. Government Printing Office.
http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2006071
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